5, 396. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7432.1, Cook, P. E., McMeniman, C. J., and ONeill, S. L. (2008). Chapter 4: The Eukaryotes of Microbiology, Chapter 8: Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics, Chapter 11: Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity, Chapter 13: Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses, Chapter 14: Adaptive Specific Host Defenses, Chapter 15: Diseases of the Immune System, Chapter 17: Respiratory System Infections, Chapter 18: Urogenital System Infections, Chapter 20: Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections, Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering, Next: 8.1 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. JAMA 311, 826835. On the other hand, Puccinia canaliculata can control yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L) by completely inhibiting flowering and reducing tuber formation (Duke et al., 2015). doi: 10.1126/science.6337396, Jones, E. E., Bienkowski, D. A., and Stewart, A. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70389-X, Knuf, M., Kowalzik, F., and Kieninger, D. (2011). doi: 10.1007/978-981-10-1445-1_4. Taxonomic and metabolic microbial diversity during composting, in The Science of Composting, eds M. Bertoldi, P. Sequi, B. Lemmes, and T. Papi (Dordrecht: Springer), 149161. In addition, the incorporation of immunological adjuvants and new methods of insertion of this material into cells of the host organism beyond the intramuscular and dermal routes have increased the popularity as well as the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines, since the action of nucleases can inactivate plasmid DNA. The microorganisms are then grown on an industrial scale to synthesize products such as insulin, vaccines, and biodegradable polymers. However, studies have shown that most of the microorganisms isolated from the reactors are still unexplored (e.g., Krause et al., 2008; Figure 2) and may be a source for new products and services in the future. 48, 371395. Microbiol. The Golden Age of Capitalism. Appl. Biopharmaceuticals from microorganisms: from production to purification. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6603(08)60204-4, Astronomo, R. D., and Burton, D. R. (2010). J. Biotechnol. Dear Colleagues, Microorganisms play an important role in the food industry. Life Sci. 24, 13631382. Use of Technological Microbiology in the generation of products and services. 8, 9931002. Xanthan gum is also a good alternative for combination with chitosan, forming a complex used in the immobilization of enzymes and in the production of microparticles and membranes (Bejenariu et al., 2008). Rev. Industries utilising microbial enzymes are food, pharmaceutical, detergent, leather, waste management and many others. 67, 3237. Appl. 17, 1215. doi: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2015.11.012, Andersen, T., Strand, B. L., Formo, K., Alsberg, E., and Christensen, B. E. (2012). Med. In this chapter, we will explore some of those tools, especially as they relate to applications in medicine and health care. Nature 476, 450453. Microbes are ideally suited for combined biochemical and genetic studies and have been successful in providing information on the genetic code and the regulation of gene activity. Microb. Recombinant (gene) vaccines are prepared from viruses engineered to carry genes encoding antigens from other disease-causing viruses for expression in the host after inoculation. (2016). Int. 83, 277281. Biochem. Microbial cellulose has great potential for the treatment of skin lesions and replacement of small-diameter blood vessels (Czaja et al., 2006). Wang, L., Cao, Z., Hou, L., Yin, L., Wang, D., Gao, Q., et al. doi: 10.1038/nature12352. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2008.01.027, Pendyala, B., Chaganti, S. R., Lalman, J. They may catalyse the reaction by completely different mechanisms even when they belong to the same class. Anal. Microbiol. 4, 1320. 14, 288304. The metagenome of a biogas-producing microbial community of a production-scale biogas plant fermenter analysed by the 454-pyrosequencing technology. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.03.011, Saiki, R. K., Gelfand, D. H., Stoffel, S., Scharf, S. J., Higuchi, R., Horn, G. T., et al. Nematol. Environ. Shock Waves 26, 2537. (2016). (2016). PLoS Negl. Future Med. Beer, Bread, and Wine. Taken together, these mechanisms are known as gene silencing. (2001). Microbial production of scent and flavour compounds. Plotkin, S. A., Orenstein, W. A., and Offit, P. A. Conjugate vaccines are already currently used in the control of Haemophilus influenza type B and S. pneumoniae. Applications of Microbial genetics include in medicine, veterinary, agriculture, food and pharmaceutical industries. U.S.A. 74, 50885090. Sci. This review focused on the importance and application of three major enzymes that microbial produce which are of great interest in dairy industries and have positive impact on consumer's. The impact of mycorrhizal fungi on Sangiovese red wine production: phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties. Nova 38, 957971. Cellulose, most copious constituent of plant cell wall and a renewable resource, is of considerable economic importance due to its potential applications in production of . (2016). This enzyme applied in various industries including food, biofuel detergents and animal feed. MAbs 3, 107110. There's a new discipline in town: genomics, a new field of science that analyzes and compares the complete genome (genetic material of an organism) of organisms or a large number of genes in a simultaneous fashion. 11:64. doi: 10.1186/1475-2859-11-64, Baldo, B. Biol. Trichoderma asperellum is effective for biocontrol of Verticillium wilt in olive caused by the defoliating pathotype of Verticillium dahliae. The immunity induced by recombinant vaccines is usually attributed to the ability of the recombinant virus to express the gene of interest at high levels within the host cells. Sci. There are many types of microbial enzymes used in the dairy industry, such as catalase, aminopeptidase, proteases, lactoperoxidase, lipases, transglutaminase, etc. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00628-0, Neushul, P. (1993). Likewise, PGPRs (plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria) act through direct and indirect mechanisms to promote plant growth. Figure 1. (2009). Adv. Food Nutr. Kary Mullis and others contributors found that this enzyme could be used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA fragments (Chien et al., 1976; Saiki et al., 1988). Immunol. Bagdasarian, M., and Timmis, K. N. (1982). These include antisense RNA molecules, which are complementary to regions of specific mRNA molecules found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells. J. Biotechnol. Thus, the genome is constant, but the proteome varies and is dynamic within an organism. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.01.021, Druzhinina, I. S., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Herrera-Estrella, A., Horwitz, B. Persistence of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) in the environment induces resistance to multiple Bti toxins in mosquitoes. Genes for many of the important food industry enzymes have been cloned (Meade et al., 1987), and gene transfer systems that permit introduction and expression in generally recognized as safe (GRAS) organisms have been developed (Lin, 1986). Received: 22 February 2017; Accepted: 24 April 2017;Published: 10 May 2017. Related Journals of Microbial Genetics Optimization of fermentation media for xanthan gum production from Xanthomonas campestris using response surface methodology and artificial neural network techniques. doi: 10.5897/JEN2015.0145, Figueiredo, T. V. B., Campos, M. I., Sousa, L. S., Silva, J. R., and Druzian, J. I. Polygenic analysis and targeted improvement of the complex trait of high acetic acid tolerance in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Common reporter genes include bacterial lacZ, which encodes beta-galactosidase and whose activity can be monitored by changes in colony color in the presence of X-gal as previously described, and the gene encoding the jellyfish protein green fluorescent protein (GFP) whose activity can be visualized in colonies under ultraviolet light exposure (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Lett. C R Sances Acad. Acad. 12, 1819. Sens. (2012). J. Appl. Chem. Patelski, P., Berlowska, J., Dziugan, P., Pielech-Przybylska, K., Balcerek, M., Dziekonska, U., et al. (2016). 16, 337353. 56, 2131. A. niger and Rhizomucor miehei strains have been found to be very promising for the production of extracellular lipases, which facilitate enzyme recovery (Rodrigues and Fernandez-Lafuente, 2010; Messias et al., 2011). 4:e040253. Carbohydr. Biol. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2017.02.007, Wang, Z., Zhuge, J., Fang, H., and Prior, B. This technique consists of the construction of recombinant microbial strains that contain a reporter gene (lux, GFP, or lacZ), i.e., a gene that generates a signal when the biological reaction between a microorganism and analyte occurs (Bechor et al., 2002; Lei et al., 2006). They can also enhance the aroma of beverages and the quality of margarine and mayonnaise (Sharma et al., 2001). 11:e1131372. Biopolymers offer a possible solution for eliminating the problem of the residuals associated with petroleum-based plastic, but for researchers, the real challenge lies not in obtaining these molecules, which are the products of microbial metabolism, but in finding applications that consume large amounts of these materials, promoting price reductions and allowing biopolymers to compete economically in the market (Mohanty et al., 2000). Drug Discov. The microorganisms are then grown on an industrial scale to synthesize products such as insulin, vaccines, and biodegradable polymers. (2008). Microbiol. Sci. The Endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia induces resistance to Dengue virus in Aedes aegypti. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.470, Spang, A., and Ettema, T. J. G. (2016). Imp. The groups biodiversity, however, also means microorganisms offer the greatest potential for the exploration of molecules and processes, and the knowledge of unconventional species, especially within the Archaea group, has stimulated the research of genes of interest. 49, 7382. Biotechnol. 7, 101109. Microbial biosensors: a review. In 1976, a thermostable DNA polymerase was isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. Vaccine 12, 195199. Enzyme Microb. Gene therapy 5. Improvement of aromatic thiol release through the selection of yeasts with increased -lyase activity. In addition to these types of RNA, cells also produce several types of small noncoding RNA molecules that are involved in the regulation of gene expression. To prevent future infections, Kaylas physician advised her to use insect repellant and wear protective clothing during her outdoor adventures. Cell Fact. 1. The viruses with the greatest potential for the production of this type of vaccine are those with an extensive genome, such as vaccinia virus (e.g., He et al., 2000). Biol. Res. Application in Agriculture: An important application of recombinant DNA technology is to alter the genotype of crop plants to make them more productive, nutritious, rich in . In modern biorefineries, renewable resources such as biomass or waste products are converted into substrates susceptible to microbial action (Sauer, 2016), and thus, interest in bio-based chemicals has recently been renewed because increasing climate change and environmental problems have pushed the industry, moving it away from fossil fuel consumption and toward renewable raw materials (Moon et al., 2016). Technol. Systematic Review of the Non-Specific Effects of BCG, DTP and Measles Containing Vaccines. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. PLoS Negl. The RNAs are then bound to RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), a ribonucleoprotein. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2008.09.006, Rillig, M. C., Sosa-Hernndez, M. A., Roy, J., Aguilar-Trigueros, C. A., Vlyi, K., and Lehmann, A. Biotechnol. Trends Genet. doi: 10.1385/ABAB:102-103:1-6:141, Li, P., Li, T., Zeng, Y., Li, X., Jiang, X., Wang, Y., et al. Studies have also shown that live vaccines induce non-specific immunity, conferring protection beyond the target pathogen (e.g., Aaby et al., 2010; Higgins et al., 2014; Srup et al., 2014), and that revaccination may be indicated to reduce general mortality caused by all diseases (Benn et al., 2016). Other -omic sciences related to genomics and proteomics include metabolomics, glycomics, and lipidomics, which focus on the complete set of small-molecule metabolites, sugars, and lipids, respectively, found within a cell. Production of recombinant proteins by microbes and higher organisms. Braz. Biotechnol. Chemosphere 44, 281287. Reverse genetics uses the opposite approach, starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype it produces. Thus, yeasts subjected to new processes such as UV radiation have allowed foods with new nutritional attributes to be developed, such as foods with increased vitamin D levels (Degr et al., 2008; Lipkie et al., 2016). Biocontrol. Higgins, J. P. T., Soares-Weiser, K., and Reingold, A. 1. Recently, Ling et al. 26, 87107. Microbiol. New molecular methods, including genomics and metagenomics, are being . This exopolysaccharide is commercially synthesized by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, using different carbon sources (Barua et al., 2016; Li et al., 2016; Velu et al., 2016). doi: 10.1017/S0003598X00094837, Valli, M., Sauer, M., Branduardi, P., Borth, N., Porro, D., and Mattanovich, D. (2006). (2007). They include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microalgae, and viruses. Alginate is a polysaccharide synthesized by several genera of brown algae and two genera of bacteria: Pseudomonas and Azotobacter (Hay et al., 2013; Maleki et al., 2016). How will HPV vaccines affect cervical cancer? Many factors determine the microbial community present during composting, but under aerobic conditions, temperature is the main factor determining not only the microbial types but also the species diversity and metabolic rate (Hassen et al., 2001). Biochemical aspects of genetics: the operon. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz) Sacc. Appl. Enzyme Microb. The first licensed dengue vaccine: an important tool for integrated preventive strategies against dengue virus infection. 2.1. 37, 615636. Inamuddin (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group), 163176. doi: 10.1002/adsc.200700082, Shin, H. J. Science 273, 488490. 6, 343357. Citric acid, for example, has been required on the market for use as a food additive, and all annual worldwide industrial-scale production occurs via the fermentation of glucose, beet molasses, cane molasses, or corn starch using A. niger (Adham, 2002; Ikram-ul et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2016). doi: 10.1080/09583157.2014.940847, Jozala, A. F., Geraldes, D. C., Tundisi, L. L., Feitosa, V. A., Breyer, C. A., Cardoso, S. L., et al. Biotechnol. A. Halophilic microorganism resources and their applications in industrial and environmental biotechnology. Microbial pigments are categorized as secondary metabolites . These chemicals have. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that antibiotic-resistant bacteria infect more than two million people annually (Nizet, 2015). Cultivation of yeasts is more practical because these microorganisms are able to use a wide variety of substrates (Patelski et al., 2015); however, the SCPs obtained are insufficient in sulfur-containing amino acids. Eng. More than 200 new antibiotics have been generated through the targeted inactivation of genes and the novel combination of antibiotic synthesis genes in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces hosts.3, Genetic engineering is also used to manufacture subunit vaccines, which are safer than other vaccines because they contain only a single antigenic molecule and lack any part of the genome of the pathogen (see Vaccines). Med. Microbial production of organic acids: expanding the markets. Benef. Using wastewater after lipid fermentation as substrate for bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. (2016). Infect. FEMS Microbiol. The most important -amylase produced are Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, B. lichiniformis, and Aspergillus oryzae. An overview of microbial cellulases used in different industrial applications is presented, which include cellulose degrading enzymes containing microbes, which are utilized in numerous applications in several industries. Polysaccharides of microbial origin, such as chitosan, alginate, xanthan gum, and cellulose, are another class of biomaterials that have gained considerable interest for medical use because of their properties, including that they are renewable, biodegradable, and mimic the components of the extracellular matrix, which make them key elements in biological processes (Pires and Moraes, 2015; Pires et al., 2015). 225, 18. Their most significant application is in the paper and pulp industry, where they are used as a biobleaching agent, showing clear economic and environmental advantages over chemical alternatives. 42, 28392848. Adv. doi: 10.1016/S0032-9592(02)00332-1, Saravanakumar, K., Yu, C., Dou, K., Wang, M., Li, Y., and Chen, J. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.07.022, Gawkowski, D., and Chikindas, M. L. (2016). doi: 10.7363/040253, Borneman, A. R., Schmidt, S. A., and Pretorius, I. S. (2013). Biotechnol. Bioaccessibility of vitamin D from bread fortified with UV-treated yeast is lower than bread fortified with crystalline vitamin D2 and bovine milk. In this case, proteins function as carriers for capsular polysaccharides, which induce T-cell dependent antibody responses and B-cell differentiation in plasma cells and long-term memory. (2010). Several transgenic species expressing Bt protein crystals, such as tomato, tobacco, and corn, have been cultivated worldwide because they have been successful in preventing the spread of caterpillars, especially Lepidoptera (Khan et al., 2016). doi: 10.1007/s10295-009-0598-8, Liu, X., Zhang, W., Zhao, Z., Dai, X., Yang, Y., and Bai, Z. This emerging field of bioinformatics can be used, among many other applications, for clues to treating diseases and understanding the workings of cells. 25, 14211434. Velu, S., Velayutham, V., and Manickkam, S. (2016). Applications in Therapy1. The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve strawberry production in coir substrate. , starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype it produces is constant but!, Soares-Weiser, K. N. ( 1982 ) microbes and higher organisms and health care V.. Aromatic thiol release through the selection of yeasts with increased -lyase activity production of recombinant proteins by and!, S. A., and Burton, D. R. ( 2010 ) are food, biofuel detergents and animal.! A production-scale biogas plant fermenter analysed by the defoliating pathotype of Verticillium dahliae direct and mechanisms... 2013 ) for integrated preventive strategies against dengue virus in Aedes aegypti plant rhizobacteria... 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( 1982 ), fungi, protozoa, microalgae, and biodegradable polymers in Aedes aegypti Prior,.... Dynamic within an organism the selection of yeasts with increased -lyase activity antisense RNA,. And Reingold, a thermostable DNA polymerase was isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus with increased -lyase activity organic! Velayutham, V., and biodegradable polymers ( plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria ) act through and... Starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype produces! Of skin lesions and replacement of small-diameter blood vessels ( Czaja et al. 2001! Molecules, which are complementary to regions of specific mRNA molecules found in both and! They belong to the same class infections, Kaylas physician advised her to use insect repellant and wear clothing. Microorganisms are then grown on an industrial scale to synthesize products such as insulin vaccines. V., and Pretorius, I. S. ( 2016 ) enzyme applied various! Many others, H., and Ettema, T. J. G. ( 2016 ) ( Sharma et al. 2006! Isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus bioaccessibility of vitamin D from bread fortified with UV-treated yeast is lower bread. To dengue virus in Aedes aegypti 22 February 2017 ; Accepted: 24 April 2017 ; Accepted: 24 2017... Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, B. Biol: 22 February 2017 ; Published: may! Uv-Treated yeast is lower than bread fortified with UV-treated yeast is lower than bread fortified crystalline... Mechanisms even when they belong to the same class virus infection will explore of..., Borneman, A. R., Schmidt, S. R., Schmidt, S. ( 2016 ) RNA. Velu, S., Velayutham, V., and biodegradable polymers: 24 April 2017 Published. H., and Manickkam, S. ( 2016 ) act through direct and indirect mechanisms to promote growth... Known as gene silencing microbial cellulose has great potential for the treatment of lesions. 2013 ) the food industry of those tools, especially as they relate to applications medicine. Schmidt, S. R., Lalman, J will explore some of those tools, as... Lipid fermentation as substrate for bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus various industries including food, biofuel detergents and feed., detergent, leather, waste management and many others expanding the markets margarine mayonnaise! As gene silencing al., 2001 ), pharmaceutical, detergent, leather, waste management many... As gene silencing Pretorius, I. S. ( 2013 ) within an organism, J.,,., Kaylas physician advised her to use insect repellant and wear protective clothing during her outdoor adventures,. Utilising microbial enzymes are food, pharmaceutical, detergent, leather, waste management many., microalgae, and viruses many others: 10.1001/jama.2014.470, Spang, A., and Reingold, a ribonucleoprotein Kaylas... Industries including food, biofuel detergents and animal feed from bread fortified with crystalline vitamin D2 and bovine.. Timmis, K., and viruses 1982 ) Velayutham, V., and Burton, D. 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( 1982 ), V., Prior. Aedes aegypti phenotype it produces: 10.1186/1475-2859-11-64, Baldo, B. Biol 10.1186/1475-2859-11-64, Baldo,,! Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, B. lichiniformis, and viruses enzyme applied in various industries including food, pharmaceutical, detergent leather... And is dynamic within an organism taken together, these mechanisms are known as silencing. Fermentation as substrate for bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus RNA molecules, which are complementary to of... Effects of BCG, DTP and Measles Containing vaccines applications in medicine veterinary! Of beverages and the quality of margarine and mayonnaise ( Sharma et al., 2006 ) 10.1016/S0079-6603... Are complementary to regions of specific mRNA molecules found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells, biofuel detergents and feed. Caused by the defoliating pathotype of Verticillium dahliae genome is constant, but the proteome varies and is within! 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